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新东方TOEFL2001.10月班笔记--(第二部分:语法笔记)

原文链接:https://forum.iask.ca/threads/11375/

zhangyl : 2005-04-28#1
TOEFL复习笔记(第二部分:语法笔记)
总叙:
1. 句子结构(句法)及书面表达(书面语) (1题1分)
2. 在语法改错中:alike-like another-other do-make special-
especially
3. 情态动词,在TOEFL考试中永远不错。
…are could… √
虚拟语气,在TOEFL中永远不考。
具体词汇:
first在改错中划线,永远不错。
The first sb to do sth 第一个做…的人
purpose: The purpose of sth is to do sth 做…的目的

语法题的考试比重:
句子结构考填空(15条)
词法考改错(25条)


填空部分:
a) 先找句子分段点(即连词、分词、介词和标点),将句子分成几段,选择要
读的那部分,即只关注与空格相关的部分。
1. 连词与标点:eg:《语法》P192 10
分词与标点:eg:《语法》P192 15
介词与标点:eg:《语法》P192 11
2. 句子:简单句 s+v.
复合句 主语+从句录 (任何句子只看一半)
并列句(分句+分句) sentence;sentence.(只看一半)
sentence and/or/but sentence.(只看一半)
b) 简化句子 (eg:《语法》P192 1)
简化原则:1、ad、冠词、数词随时可以划掉不看
2、修饰n.的a.或者分词随时划掉不看
3、prep短语随时划掉不看
4、做状语的分词短语(位于句首或句尾),随时划掉不看
5、与空格无关的句子划掉不看
c) 分析句子结构、判断空格中所缺句子成分
捷径:可直接套用固定句型与结构(eg:《语法》P192 8)

倒装句型:倒装部分的首字为助动词或系动词。
1.句子成分 主、谓、宾、定、状、补、同谓
状:修饰谓语
定、补、同谓→主、宾
d) 区分4个选项,结合句意与语感确定选项,确定答案
思路:句子→简单句→主干→判断缺少成分→选择答案
2.状语:prep状语 状从 独立结构、n.+doing、n.+done inf doing/done
分词
3.固定结构 《语法》P192 12
4. 固定结构 《语法》P192 12
…forms…,___,required elements.
即:sub,插入语,v+obj.  插入语:定从或者省略定从
定从省略:在定从中,sub+系动词,可以同时省略,即which be / who be /
that be可省

√插入结构的答案标准形式
1. 定语从句或者省略定从
2. n.作主语同谓语
3. a.短语/分词短语/介词短语
eg:a)Bill Clinton,(who is省)the former president of the U.S.A,loves
L.
b)《语法》P193 12
c)Pandas,(which are省)native to China,are loved by the people all
over the world.
(形容词短语)

4. 填空的固定结构与句型
a)主句专一结构:(《讲义》P6 1 2)
任何句子只有一个主语,句子间必须有连词连接
eg:句子,句子。X(此结构误)
句子;句子。√
TOEFL语法中之考陈述句,任何从句均正常语气。
b)谓语专一结构:(《讲义》P6 2 4)
任何句子只有一个谓语,谓语间必须有两次连接
eg:主谓…谓…. X
主谓…,谓…. X
c)平行结构:(《讲义》)P6 5 6)(新题 P59 3 4)
A and/or B
A,B,and/or B
各元素必须一致
Sentence 1, sentence 2, sentence 3 and sentence 4. √ (排比句)
d)宾语从句结构:(《讲义》P6 7 8 《讲义》P21 91.8.10)
indicate、state等动词后面第一反应为that引导的宾语从句,即:
sub+Vt+that+clause,所以indicate、state等Vt后面第一反应是找that。
e)what结构:(《讲义》P7 9 10)

1.缩合连接代词
what= the thing that/all that  thing由句意决定(《讲义》P7 9 10)
2.What在前后句中必须同时做成分
what= the thing that
3.n.+what X what前面永远不要先行词
4.prep.+what+完整句(s.+v.+o.) X 
→which
5. What is now √ (新题 9710.13) 可有可无的插入语
6. what little(不可数) what few(可数) (新题 98.10.14) what
little = the little sth that what few = the few sth that

7. what引导的句子等于一个名词,且可以作sub或者obj,或表语
what+v = the thing (that+v)

8. what 90%以上的出题方式:
prep___v.:介词与谓语间用what (讲义 P7 9)
Vt___v.:及物动词与谓语间用what(讲义 P7 10)
f) prep+which结构:(讲义 P7 11 12)
1.S+vt+n.+which+vt+o. (which做主语)
主句
+s+vt(which做宾语)
√ which+不完整句
2.S+Vt+n.+prep.+which+s.+v.+o
主句 完整句
√prep+which+完整句(句子+prep+which+句子)
连接两句子
√句子___句子。*可优先选择prep+which或in that

定于从句与同位语的区别:
1.定从:sub+vt+n+that/which+不完整句
关系代词
同位语:sub+vt+n+that+完整句
连接ad.
2.定从的先行词是任何词,同位语的先行词只有:见《讲义》P23 94.8.6
3.定从与n的关系是修饰关系,同位语与n的关系是说明名词内容。
g) in that结构:(讲义13 14)
in that= because 因为  in that:连词+原因状语
但是in that不位于句首,句子+in that+句子,但是because可以位于句首。
答案中只要有in that,一定是选项。

h) 同位语从句:(讲义15-19)
同位语:主语同位语/宾语同位语→ n.
说明或者解释主语/宾语的某一属性/特性
1.主语同位语的三种位置:
1)主语同位语:主+谓+宾:n, sub+v+o 位于句首的孤立n,只能是同位语
eg:A famous GRE expert,Micheal Yu is a good teacher.
解题方法:由主语同位语找主语(讲义P7 15)
2)主同:主,n. ,v+obj (讲义 P7 17)
主,主同,谓宾
3)主同+主+谓+宾(没逗号)
eg:The teacher Feanklin has taught TOEFL for three years.
2.宾语同位语的两种位置:
1) 主 谓 宾,宾同:s+v+o , n 位于句尾的孤立n,只能是同位语 (讲义
P7 18 19)
ad+同位语(n)√
eg:Once a famous seaport, Shanghai is become a large city.
2) 主谓宾+宾同(不用逗号) (逗号可有可无)
eg:新题:P275 9

i) adj的并列结构:(讲义 P7 20 21)
an old red car √ an old,red car √ a red,old car√
a red old car X 
当几个a.排成一列修饰同一个n.时,a.间不并列,则有明确的顺序。当几个a排
成一列修饰同一个n.时,a.间并列,则没有明确的顺序。逗号连接两个a.,并且
并列。

j) 比较级结构:(讲义P7 22-25)
Franklin plays tennis than LQX.(省略性)√
LQX does.(对称性)√
does LQX.(倒装性)√
1) 对称性:在比较结构中,比较对象一定要对等。
√eg:The climate of Alaska is much coller than that of Texas.
在比较结构中优先考虑选择that / those / the one,而不选it / them,因为
that / those / the one是泛指,it / them是特指。 (讲义 P7 24 25)
*比较对象一定要泛指。
China has a long history than Japan. 不用its
2) 省略性:(讲义P7 24 25) 
在比较结构中,相同的谓语可以省略,尤其是be动词带省
eg:He is a little old than I (am).
3) 倒装性:在比较结构中,than后面可以倒装也可以不倒装,但考试中是倒装
形式。(讲义 P7 23)

k)定语从句的省略结构:(讲义 26 27)
1. 如果that / which在定从中作obj,可以省略.
sub+vt+n+(which / that)+sub+vt
→s+vt+n+s+v
 s+vt+n1+n2+vt
*当做题时,若发现两个名词在一起,但是似乎连不上,则一定省略that /
which,则动词为vt,做谓语。
2. 定从的特殊省略(新题 P92 13)
the way (in which) + 句子
the reason (why that)+句子        均为完整句
the time (that / when)+句子
I do remember the first time (that省) I ever heard the sweatest voice
in the world.
By the time省that+句子,句子。
3.定从的主系省略(主+系可同时省)
即:which be , who be , that be可同时省 (讲义P7 17)
*在新题中难题常与which be的省略有关(新题 P196 15)
l)状语从句的省略结构:(讲义 P8 28 29)
Although (it is)native to Europe, svo.
Although (she was) affluted by…svo.
Even though (it is) costly,svo.

省略条件:
1) 特定的状语从句引导词:although though even though when while 
if as
2) 从句为主系表结构
3) 从句主语与主句主语一致。
Alought (主+系)+表,主谓宾。

省略方式:
a) 可以同时省略主+系→连词+表语(a. 分词 svo)
b) 主系必须同时省
c) Alough / Thouth / While / If / As / When +(系表)+a./分词,svo
√ 一定是答案
m)doing结构:(讲义 30 31)
doing现在分词→ a./ad.作定于/状语
动名词→ n. 作主语/宾语
eg:1)Stranving troop have to surrender.
现在分词修饰n.,翻译为“…的”
2)Transforming faw materials into useful products is called
maufacturing.  (Transforming:动名词)
具有动词特征的n做主语或者宾语,但同时又可接宾语,动名词与n为动宾关系,
中心词为v-ing,翻译为“…的行为”。
3)Starving troops is forbidden,  sharving是主语,单数,谓语动词用is
不用are

*在TOEFL中:
____n.(pl.)+v.(sing),一般空格内优先选doing (讲义 31)
n)make结构:(讲义31 32)
make+obj+宾补 obj:n/代词 宾补:n./adj.
1) make+n1+n2 make the boy president (班长)
2) make+n./代词+a. (新题 P78 11)
make it unique it:真宾语
3)make it possible to do it:形式宾语 (讲义 33)
that +句子
4)make sth possible  sht:短宾语  possible宾补
  make possible sth  sth长宾语  possible宾补 (新题 32)
o)the more…the more结构 

标准句式:the more sub+v1 the more sub+v2
!)对称性:结构中的n.前必须有限定词
the more the +n1 the more the +n2
2)省略性:结构中相同的谓语可省,尤其是be动词可省
3)倒装性:The more svo , the more svo .是一个复合句。
条件状从 主句
因此从句不能倒装,而主句(第二个the more)可倒装。

p)表结果的伴随状语从句结构: (讲义 36 37)
svo,doing….伴随状语
表结果:thus / thereby → svo,thus / thereby +doing…
*thus / thereby 后不一定加doing
*as f ar / long / early  as 出现即为答案/
many / much

q)adj短语做后置定语结构:(讲义 38 39) *==等价于定从的省略
a door (close to the window) 省略which be
a distance (equal to twice)
n1+(a.+prep+n2) adj短语
foods (high in fat) √
leaves (rich in suger) √
n1+which be(比较级+than+n2) 相当于从句的省略
a temperature (highter than 50C)

r)adj最高级的省略结构: (讲义 40 41)
the most improtant of all books
the most elaborate of all birdnests
the+a.最高级+单数n. X +of   复数n. 一样错
*单数n.必须省略,则the+a.最高级+of+n.(pl.)
n.(可代替)→ ad. X / v.过去时X 
  a. n.(sing) of √   *the a.原级 of+ the restfulof X
the poor of √

s)不规则动词的过去式作谓语结构:(讲义 42 43)
She set  set-set-set
It cost  cost-cost-cost
It spread spread-spread-spread

t)规则动词的过去分词作后置定语结构 (讲义 44-46)
46条:Automatons programmed… 非谓语,整个句子少谓语
lack a. be lack of 
vi. be lack in
vt. Sub+lack+obj
*如何判断n+v-ed是谓语还是非谓语?
eg:n+called call-called-called
We called him Bush. 主动,过去式,谓语
He was called Bush. 被动,过去分词,谓语
…a boy called Bush? 被动,过去分词,后置定语
根据主/被动确定,主动语态为过去式,被动语态为过去分词,被动式中有be即
是非谓语。
*n+v-ed,先从逻辑上判断名词与动词过去式的关系,主动为过去式,是谓语,
考试时留下,被动是过去分词,没有be,则是后置定语,考试时划掉不看。

u)逻辑主语结构: (讲义 47-50)
1) Doing…,svo.
Done…,svo.
动作的发出者/承受者为逻辑主语,*位于句首做状语的分词短语的逻辑主语,也
就是句子的主语。(47)
2) n1+doing…,n2vo.
n1+doing…,n2vo.
分词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致,即为独立主格结构,在n1前可加with /
without
3)(n2)prep+n1,svo.     (讲义 49 / 新题 P104 10)
  前后主谓要一致
4)Alough +doing…,svo.
If+done…,svo.
位于句首,做状语的分词短语显然可以加状语从句引导词alough though 
even though if as when while
eg:When traveling in New York, Tom met many intrersting people..
5)To do…,svo.  Inf的逻辑主语与句子主语可一致也可不一致:
eg:To made stereo effects, two recordings are made the some
performances.
6)Alough to do…,svo. X
If to do…,svo. X
位于句首做状语的inf前不可加状语引导词。
*when to do,句子。X
句子,when to do. X
在TOEFL中,when to do一般不选。

v)宾补法则:(讲义 51-54)
We appointed him +CEO. (CEO:宾补)
主  谓 宾  宾补     (主动)
He was appointed +CES.
主  谓       主补 (被动)
主动为宾补,被动为主补。
补语:使句子完整。
宾补:某些vt接obj后,句意不完整,必须加一个n或者adj,所加的n.或者adj,
即为宾补,分词也可以。这些vt为:appoint, elect, consider, name, call,
make.
1) elect:主动:sb/sth elect sb sth.
被动:sb be elect a)+职位
b)+to+机构
c)+to+the office of+职务
2) consider:在TOEFL中,从不说consider as
主动:sb / sth consider n1+(to be)+n2/a.宾补
被动:n1+be considered+to be+n2/a.主补
*consider+n1+n2在考试中优先选择。
3)name 主动:sb/sth name sb sth
被动:sb be named sth
4)宾语后置:(宾语太长)
make sth possible = make possible sth
bring sth to sb / sw = bring to sb /sw sth
bring sth together = bring together sth
bring sth to light揭示…,发现… = bring to light sth

w)it结构 (讲义55-57)
*___ n. (新题P183 15 / 讲义 57)
答案一般选sub+谓语,优先选择there be,一定不选it is /they’re,it is不
位于句首:It is a book. X一般TOEFL中考:
1) 强调句型
It’s / was +被强调部分+that / who +其余部分 
被强调部分+其余部分=句子。
a) 可强调主语、宾语、状语,但是不可鄙强调定语、谓语。
b) 强调人时,that / who均可,其余均用that
c) 后面句子为过去时态,用was,其余用is
*___ who…,___that… (讲义 55)
优先选择it is / was +ڤ
2) 形式主/宾语
it+be+adj/分词+ to do        it:形式主语
that clause
eg:It is easy to pass TOEFL.
It was once believed that+句子
形式宾语:s+vi+it+adj. / 分词+ to do / that clause. It:形式主语
sub+make+it+possible+to do / that

x)which引导定从的三种形式:
1) sub+vt+n+which+sv2 / v2o *which不一定指最接近的n. (j讲义 P9 58)
2) s.+vt+n.+[prep+which]+svo. (讲义 59) 
*prep+which+vo X → prep+which+svo √
3)SVO, 数/n. +of which + VO
主语 谓语
对部分进行解释
*    all
both
SVO, each      _____ VO.
either
five
five persent
three quater 这类题一定选of which.

y)倒装结构:一般考1~2条,在第13~15之间 (讲义 62-67) 
原则:只有主句才可以倒装,答案的首字母一定为系动词。
1. 否定ad位于句首,引起倒装:not only, not until, haedly, scarcely,
seldom, rarely, no sooner…than 
1) not until + 时间 + 主谓倒装,not until + 句子+主谓倒装
2) only+状语位于句首
only +ad.  eg: recently
prep.短短语  eg: in recently years
从句  eg: when clause
only一个词本身不倒装
3) 形容词短语/分词短语位于句首,引起倒装
adj+prep+n.+系动词+n.
表语 系 主
*typical of  characteristic of
分词短语+prep+n.+系动词+n.
表语 系  主
 *coinciding with + n
4) so位于句首 (so…that…)
sub+be+so+a.+that clause
so+a.+be+sub+that clause
5) 表示地点范围的介词短语位于句首,谓语动词为系动词,一定引起倒装
In…(表语)+系动词+主,主同。  (新题 P144 14)
*在倒装句型答案中不能出现there
*常考介词要倒装:among between in at beneath
常考的系动词:be lie exist remain rest
6) 在比较级结构中,than后面可以倒装,也可以不倒装。
7) as位于句中:
eg: Jerry is a good teacher, as are his family. as在句中
Jerry is a good teacher. So are his family. so在句首

z)双谓语结构: (讲义 72-76)
___ v1(从句谓) + …… + v2(主句谓)
结构特征:两个谓语直接在一起,第一反应应为主语从句。
即:主从引导词+sv1o+v2o
1. 主语从句引导词+主语从句 V1+…+V2 (90%)
2. Doing+宾从引导词+宾从主语+v1+…+v2 
3. N.+of+what+v1+…+v2

二十七、双宾语结构: (讲义 77 新题 P196 13)
1. gain win earn
sth gain / win / earn+sb+sth
2. tell persudade
sb tell sb that+句子
sb persuade sb that+句子
3.give grant  (新题 P130 12)
sth give sth sth
sth/sb grant sb/sth sth
4.Appoint hame call elect consider make
*v2+n1+n2 优先选择

二十八、讲义 68-71
1. Like / unlike + n , svo.
2. Pioneer in 只考被动
3. What to do  what不要obj
How +句子  how要有obj
What one says.
How one says it.
What to do. (what is pron)
How to do it (how is ad)
注:在讲义上P21 91.5.8加:which, whereas
*在空格前为完整句,空格后为名词,95%以上的空格是定语从句
S+Vt+n.+定语从句(95%)


改错部分:
a.改错题做题要点:
1. 语法与句意并重,一定要通读全句
2. 一边读句意,一边思考划线部分的语法知识点是否正确

b.改错题出题方向:
一、名词:
A、名词做定语的单复数问题:
1. 名词做定语,即n1修饰n2, n1必须为单数。(讲义 P1 10)
a twenty-four hour period √
例外:a greetings card √
a savings bank √
a communucations satellite √
a sports car √
a sales girl √
a systems engineering √

2. many woman修饰名词,单复数与后面的名词的单复数一致,比如:women
boxers (讲义P1 11)

3. the highset scientific lab X a chemical lab X a mathmatics(n.)
professor √ a biological textbook X 当表示某一学科的教授、学生、教科
书、实验室、系等教学要素,应该用名词修饰,而不是用形容词。eg: a
physics student 
the scientific and technical field (用形容词因为field不是教学要素)
B、限定词与名词单复数:(讲义P1 4)
1. some / any / all 单复数均可,可数不可数均可
如:some kind 某一种  some kinds 某些种
some time some money
any of the books / some of the books →any / some作代词
Would you like some coffee?(想要得到肯定的回答)
2. Many + pl
Much +/Λ /     (见讲义P1 3)
As much as 2,000 kms. √ 永远作单数
As many as 50 precent of the income. X    precent /Λ /
As much as 50 precent of the income. √
2000 kms is a long distance. √
many are…
by many…  many也可以作prep (讲义P1 13)
3.few / a few 可数,肯定    (讲义P1 2)
  little / a little 不可数,否定
  (a)few +n.s
4.each / every 单数,可数
eg each ten boys √
each major styles X
each major style √
5.数词 / several + pl.
five aircraft √  several settings √
several + n.s 
6.one of+pl (讲义P1 7)
among+pl  (讲义P1 11)
7.first / only / simple 单/复数均可
the first school 第一所学校
the first schools 第一批学校
the only university 唯一的大学
the only university 唯一的几所大学
single: a single +n.(sing) / no single +n.(sing)
也可pl: two single rooms
8.another+sing (复数也可以,但不多)
other + pl (单数也可以,但不多)
anyother +sing
another two boys  other part t
the other+sing / pl
any other state = any of the other states
9. Hundred / thousand / million数量词=数词+量词
five thousands pieces X → five thousand piece (five:数词 thousand
量词)
一亿本书:hundred millions books X
hundreds million books X
hundreds millions books X
(a) hundred millions books √

数    量 
10.a number of + pl + v(pl)  (讲义P1 8 9)
the number of +pl+v(sing)
11.Various / diverse / numerous +pl.
C、可数与不可数名词:
1. 常考的可数n. (讲义 P23 5)
a chance discovery 一个偶然发现
population:人口数/Λ / 各地的人口数/c/ 人群/c/:a sample population
make great efforts to do
color effects
a clue 一条线索
an amount of + /Λ /

2. 常考的不可数名词: (讲义 P10 1)
a. 流体:air smoke oil water…
b. 总称名词:poetry foliage… [集合名词:family people police…+are]
c. 抽象名词:wisdom knowledge information…
d. 自然现象:sunlight darkness weather rain…[但是:a heavy rain 前有
adj.,raindrop雨滴,可数]
e. 颗粒装物体:rice salt parder(颗粒)…
f. 疾病:measles mumps diaheties…
g. 学科:讲义 P10 2 statistics:统计学,不可数;统计数据,可数

3. 常考的不规则单复数: (讲义P10 3 4)
*tooth划线,这个答案一定错。
foot-foot 单复数一样:步兵   horse-horse:单复数一样:骑兵

4. 常考的单复数同形的名词:(讲义P11 4):
*a mean这答案一定错。

5. 单复数名词意义有差异:
mean:中庸,均值-means:方法,手段,财富
water:水-waters:水域(water加s一定不错)
part:部分-parts:部分,才能 other part:其他部分,以免歧义。
good:好-goods:货物
force:;力,力量-forces:武装部队
custom:风俗习惯-customs风俗习惯,海关
spectacle:光景-spectacles:眼镜
arm:手臂-arms:武器

6. 既可数又不可数的名词:(讲义P21 91.1.21.n.c.&u.)
rock:大块岩石,可数;小的岩石,不可数
suger:方糖,可数;沙糖,不可数
area:面积,不可数;地区、区域,可数
collection:由同种物品构成,不可数;由不同种物品构成,可数
eg: his art collection /Λ /  his three collections of short
stories /c/
time:时间,不可数;此数、倍数,可数
*当不可数表示种类的时候,就是可数的。
可数/不可数的区别:有无可数的概念,抽象(不可数)还是具体(可数)
advertising /Λ /
advertisement /c/
the meaning of life /Λ / 生命的意义
their lives /c/  他们的生命

二、冠词 (讲义P1 12-23)
A、不定冠词 (a与an划线80%错)
1. a与an的混用:(讲义12) 发音而非字母
a university a unit a unique an undergradute an understanding an
atom an emotion an electrical lamp an hour an honest boy an herb
 a yawn

2. a与pl.n.的连用
出题方式:a/an+adj+pl.n
an outstanding boys X an outstanding boy √

3. 不定冠词的遗漏:(讲义 14)
①固定词组中a的遗漏
a set of a serics of a piece of a variety of a group of a wealth
of a wide range of a collection of
②单数可数名词,前面必须有限定词
It is book. X
It is good book. X
It is very good book. X
It is a very good book.√
限定词:冠词a an the 人称代词his her… 指示代词that this… 所有格
Tom’s… 不定代词any some…
I have times.√
规律:⑴v+单数可数名词 X
…is still practical medium…X
…is still a practical medium…√
…operated sewing machines
…hired women
form grid X→…form grids/a grid
⑵prep+sing./c/ X (讲义 16)
…the manufacture of automobiles
…of hamid areas
…in poor neighbouhoods
…through falling raindrops
例外:all cells differ widely in function“在功能方面”,不可数。
in color in science等
*in+sing.n.表示在某一方面,某一领域,某一行业
in stage:在舞台这个领域
part of = a part of (讲义 P1 17)
在考试中,part划线,永远对
⑶(a /the)founder of
表示职位、身份、亲属关系的名词可以单独使用
…is chief of 
Little Bush,son of George Bush,is running for the office of
president.
⑷固定词组的名词可以单独使用
in response to in honor of…都对
⑸(新题 P58 29)
表示各类的名词后所接的名词,可以单独使用,不用加定冠词或变复数。
type of  sort of kind of

B、定冠词
1. 表“独一无二”的事物前加the
the Sun. the Moon (the)earth The Summer Palace

2. 叙述词:只有做前置定语修饰名词,才必须加the
the first university
陷阱:①Utah ranks first among… 不是前置定语
    rank first among词组
②A is second only to B. A仅次于B。

3. 最高级:只有做前置定语,才加the(新题P67 29)
the most handsome teacher
Pandas are most plantiful in China, 做定语,不用定冠词。
陷阱:most的非最高级不一定要加the.(讲义 23)

4. 表示“开始”“结束”一定加the (讲义 19)

5. 表示“人体”“普通人”加the (新题 95.8.40)
人体:the human body
普通人:the average person , the common person

6. 城市名、洲名、国家名不加the (国家的联合名词除外,如USA)
in Paris = in the cith of Paris
in Texas= in the city of Texas

7. 河流、湖泊、海洋,前加the 
the Changjiang River winds from the Atlantic Ocean

8. Nature
1) 若是指在自然界 in nature 不加the
2) 特指…of nature 本质的,发自内心的
faith of nature nature考试时一定不加the 

9. 一般气体前不加the (除非有特定范围)
the nitroger X the nitroger of the box √
学科前面不加the 
the astronomy X 
元素前面不加the 
the copper X the matal copper √铜牌,间接加可以

10.history
1) 泛指“在历史上” in history,不加the 
2) 特指“某种历史“,in the history of Suzhou University

11.most的用法
①代词,“大多数”
most of +n.(必须特指) 单数
复数
不可数
most of the mammals 这些哺乳动物的大多数
most前不用定冠词,但是名词前必须用定冠词。
②adj.“大多数的”
most+n.(泛指) 复数 / 单数
most mammals 大多数的哺乳动物
most 及名词前都不用定冠词。
③ad.修饰形容词或者副词的最高级,加the
the most beautiful girl 最漂亮的女孩
④ad.修饰形容词或者副词,表示very
a most beautiful girl = a very beautiful girl
most often = very often
eg 1. _a__William’s books.(特指)
a. most of
b. most 
2. _b__ ballet dancers.(特指)
a. All of
b. All
all of 与all和most og、most用法相似。
⑤most & mostly区别
the mostly intense of … X
…be composed most of water …X 
most: adj. / pron / ad
mostly: ad. 大多数的,修饰prep/ v
mostly:adj修饰名词,ad修饰形容词和副词

12.乐器前加定冠词(但中国乐器不加,洋鬼子的乐器才要加)
play the violin
play erhu(二胡)


三、代词:(讲义 P2 24-32)
TOEFL中,代词的错误率非常高
1. 代词间五种形式的混淆
主格he↔宾格him←反身代词 himself
↕   ↨     ↑   
所有格his   名词.self     (箭头为改错方向)
①名词前应该使用所有格(新题 P92 27)
eg Who style X → whose style
make she debut X → make her debut
②反身代词(改为宾格)
反身代词必须与所在句子主语一致 (讲义 24)
eg  He killed him. (他杀)宾格与主语不一致
He killed himself.(自杀)反身代词与主语一致
③双宾语结构、名词前不一定是所有格
eg  His studies is genentics won him prices. √ 双宾语
④self自我、本我,n. → 出现在哲学中,self划线永远错。

2. 代词的单复数的混用 (讲义 25)
it→them its→theirs that→those he→them one→those himself→
themslves

3. them & those, it & the one的区别(讲义 27)
them与it特指,they与the one泛指

4. 代词的性别的混用 (讲义 28)

5. 代词的人与物的混用 it / he…

6. 关系代词的混用:
a. who代人,that代人/物,which代物。*一般考点为who / which(讲义
30)
b. who代人,主格;whom代人,宾格;whose代人/物,所有格。*一般考点为
who/whose(讲义 31)

7. 从句引导词(讲义 19 36)
①从句引导词:代词性:在从句中做成分,代词+不完整句
who / whom / that / which / how many
形容词:whose / how much / how many *在句中不做成分,ad+完整句
ad.:if / because / why / when…
that即是代词性,也是副词性引导词
*that的用法:
a)that ⑴关系代词用于定从,在从句中做主语或者宾语。
…n.+that+不完整句
⑵连接副词,用于主从,宾从,表从和同位语从句。在从句中不做成分
…that+完整句
b)that省略 ⑴在定从中,that做主语可以省略。That+be可以省略。
⑵在宾从中,某些及物动词后可省:say/
see/know /here /think /believe /betold /understand / propose / hear
②prep+which+不完整句 X
prep+what+完整句X
when+n(孤立)X
n+what X
whose +v. X
where+v. X
③状语从句引导词+完整句
④介词+which+完整句
 连接副词(that)+完整句
⑤如果先行词中有序数词、最高级、不定代词、only中,只用that不用which

8. 从句:从句是主句的一个句子成分,从句=从句引导词+句子,从句引导词表
明从句的位置。
㈠主语从句:从句是主句的一个主语
sub clause+v+obj
从句引导词+句子+v+obj → 标准形式
That TOEFL is a piece of cake is known to all.
㈡宾语从句:从句是主语的宾语
主语+谓语+从句
sub+vt+从句引导词+句子→ 标准形式
We known that TOEFL is a piece of cake.
㈢表语从句:从句是主句的一个表语
主+系+表
sub+系动词+从句引导词+句子→ 标准形式
The fact is that TOEFL is a piece of cake.
㈣状语从句:从句是主句的一个状语
状语。Svo.
从句引导词+句子,句子.→ 标准形式
*引导词决定句子的性质,如if是条件从句,when是时间从句等.
㈤同位语从句:从句是主语的同位语
主语+谓语+宾语+从句  完整句
sub+vt+obj(n.)+从句引导词(ad)+句子→ 标准形式(宾同)
We know the fact that TOEFL is a piece of cake.
㈥定语从句:从句是主句的一个定语(以宾语定语为例)
s+v+n+从句引导词(代词)+不完整句→ 标准相识
We know the fact that is not known to Jerry.

四、介词(讲义33-43)
1、through / throughout
through 穿过(某一具体物体):through the earth
通过(某一具体方式):through x-ray analysis
throughout +时间:贯穿 throughout his lifetime/their existense
+地点:遍布 throughout the world =all over the world = all across
the world

2、between / among
the distance between the stars / trees. √
distance表示两者的距离
among the two separate realms. X
among三个/三个以上之间

3.In / inside / into → 动态的,强调动作、过程
air into a house X→ air in a house 
shot arrows inside the sky X → shot arrows into the sky
in/inside表示静态的,强调的状态
into commerve X → in commerve

4.In / for / since (与时态有关)
in:时刻点 in 1979 过去时
时间段 in recent years (完成时)/ in two days(将来时)
for:介词+一段时间:for three years (完成时,过去时)
   连词: 自从,因为
并列连词:不位于句首,句子,for+句子
since:介词+时刻点:since 1954(完成时)“自从”
连词:自从
因为(常考)+原因状语从句 since+句子,句子
副词:与完成时连用,表从过去的某个时间或某个事件至今
与过去时连用=ago
Tom died many years since… √

5.of考法:多余、遗漏、误用:A common use with gold is…X with→ of
prep → of , of → prep.
With强调某种工具的使用,of强调所有关系

6.by be done by 被动语态的标志
by doing通过…方才…
作品by作者 / 电影by导演 / 研究by研究人员

7. 固定搭配(3-4个)



五、动词(讲义44-73)
㈠谓语动词
1. 主谓一致(与插入语无关)
1主谓的分隔原则:主谓之间可以用定语从句或者省略的定语从句分隔。
s1→vo

2定语从句中的主谓一致:…n1+that+v
…,one of +n(pl)+that+v(sing) / v(pl) 通常
…,the only one+n.(pl)+that+v(sing)
…,n1 of n2 +that+v(由动词发出者决定)

3随前一致:
n. + together with       n2+v与n1&n2一致
as well as
including
along with
with / of
accompanied with / by

4就近原则:n1 or n2       +v(就近原则)
either n1 or n2
neither n1 nor n2
eg: He or we are…   Is he or we…?

5可数n1 and 可数n2+v(pl)
不可数n1 and 不可数n2+v(pl)
例外:war and peace is… war and peace是一个整体
表示一个整体的两个名词例外,类似的还有:law and order bread and
butter black and white 
To love and to be loved is …
A lawyer and a teacher are…
A lawyer and teacher is …

6随后原则:not A but B / not only A but also B+v.(与B一致)

7百分比结构:most , half , rest , some , majority , one+persent
of+n1+v.(由n1决定)
数词与谓动无关

8倒装结构的主谓一致:
a)There be +n 由名词决定动词
b)Among , between等介词位于句首引起倒装结构:
Among / Between …+系动词+n. (由名词决定动词)

9The+adj的主谓一致:
a)当表示“一类人”,则+v(pl)
The rich are always ridiculous,
b)当表示某一抽象概念时,则+v(sing)
The good is always attractive.
10To do/doing/主从+v(sing)
*More than one+n(sing)+v(sing)
many a +n.(sing)+v(sing)
a day or two +v(sing)
news不可数,抽象 economics不可数,学科 mumps不可数 species由句意决
定 draughts不可数,跳棋

2. 谓语动词的时态与语态:
时态:一般现在时,一般过去时,现在完成时
prep(in/for/since)→时间→时态→动词形式

      矛盾(考点)
语态问题::只考陈述句,情态动词在TOEFL中永远对,嘘拟语气在TOEFL中也不
太考。
*89-96年的虚拟语气共考过4次:(新题 P91 10 P65 10)
sub+insist / require +that +s+v
sub+make +it+impertive that+sub+v
主被动语态是TOEFL中的重点:句意,by,动词用法。(讲义P3 61)在TOEFL中
have done by一定错

3. 常考的谓语动词:(讲义 58)
①常考主动态的动词:prove: vt+obj / vi+to be +n. / adj.
eg: My advice proved to be wrong. √ (主动表被动)
prove / seem / occur / take place / rank / range / weigh / measure /
date(date back to)…都是主动表被动
②常考被动态动词:(讲义 59)
*locat在TOEFL中常考被动
eg: Bats can locat the obstacles. “确立…位置”
  My school is located near a river.“位于”
*concerned be ~ with
compose be ~ of 
compared be ~ to / with 在TOEFL中to/with一样
noted be ~ for 
based be ~ on
known be ~ for / as / to 
eg: Li Ao is known for his books.
  Li Ao is know as a writer.
  Li Ao is know to us.
 decicated be ~ to do 被用于…、被题词… / to doing 致力于…事业中
 credited be ~ with(因)(被认为)导致了…/有利于…(果)
for 
to (果)归功于…,归因于…(因)
called be ~ …
③主动=被动的词:
hatc=be hatched feed on=be fed on face=be faced with 
need/want/require need doing=need to be done’
④情感动词:(讲义 60)
please annoy move surprise 都有“使…”的意思
please:主动:be ~ing (物)使人高兴的
sht be ~ing
被动:be ~ed (人)被使得高兴
sb be ~ed
move: Franklin is so moved.
The story is so moving.

㈡非谓语动词
1.现在分词与过去分词的区别:
主动 被动→后置定语/状语→90%
进行 完成→前置定语 →10%
动作 状态→不考
eg: the boiled water 开水
  the boiling point 沸点

2.现在分词与过去分词的用法:
⑴可以位于句首/句末做状语,正确与否取决于主被动
句首:Doing…, svo. 主动   (讲义 66)
Done…, svo. 被动
句末:svo, doing… 主动  (讲义 65)
svo,done… 被动

⑵可以位于名词后,做后置定语修饰名词,且等同于定语从句。正确与否取决于
主被动
n+doing… 主动 (讲义 58) … people claming to… 主动
n+done… 被动 (讲义 58) … reports received … 被动
eg: the sites occupied by early human… 被动
*常考的+doing的动词:
mean enjoy finish mind celebrate forgive tolerate suggest 
advocate quit delay avoid escape spend be capable of play a key
 role in keep/prevent from have difficulty in have trouble/a hard
time/a problem in

3.关于不定式的省略用法:
⑴help to do = help do
help sb to do = help sb do
⑵使役动词:let make have bid后的inf必须省to
let sb do make sb do have sb do have sth done bid sb do sth吩咐…
做…
⑶感官动词:see watch notice heat后的inf必须省to
see sb do sth see sb doing 
be seen to do/be seen doing 被动

4. Inf固定用法:
⑴做某事的“第一人”:the first sb to do 
⑵(讲义 68)表“允许”“迫使”的动词后接inf
allow sb to do permit sb to do force sb to do cause sb to do 
enable sb to do 
allow the fruite to ripen
allow the ripening of the fruit
⑶表示“倾向”的形容词或动词后接inf
tend to do attempt to do be more likely to do/that be inclmed to do
 be intended to do be liable/apt to do易于…
⑷表“目的”的名词后接inf做表语
the + purpose / goal / aim / objective / intention / reason /
function+of sth is to do sth
⑸与接不定式的动词或者形容词,同词跟的名词后也接不定式
able to do → ability / enable to do 
decide to do → decision to do 
attempt (v.) to do → attempt(n) to do 
(讲义 71)
be ambitious to do sth → ambition to do sth
try to do → make afforts to do sth

5. Inf的其它形式:
1)将来式:
主动:be to do 
被动:be to be done 
eg: China is to be one of the most important countries in the new
century.
* to be done & done的区别:
the surface to be glaued 表将来
the surface glwed 表完成
2)完成式:
主动:to have done 
被动:to have been done
表示不定式的动作发生在谓语前
eg: I am glad to see you again. 动作同时发生
I am glad to have seen his sons yesterday. am glad表示现在的动作 to
have seen表示昨天的动作
3)The problem is easy to solve.
The problem is difficult to carry out.
在easy difficult hard simple等形容词后的不定式主动表示被动


六、形容词的比较级与最高级:(讲义 P4 74-81)
考点:形容词的词性混用,两个近义形容词的混用(small pressure→low
pressure)(讲义P22 92.5.36),原级、比价级和最高级的混用,词序问题。
1.形容词的比较级与最高级形式上的重复:
eg: more sreater X
most easiest X
lesser…than X
2.形容词比较级与最高级的混用:
⑴more… of all +n(pl)/in the world/among…
这里的more错,more→most

⑵most…than X → more…than
eg: Pennsylvania has the more institutions of higher learning than
any other state.

⑶常考的修饰比价级的词:
a little a bit slightly far (more) much (more) still (more than)
 a lot (more than)
eg: be much abundant in…X → very
so much close to …X → very
much&very:much修饰比较级,very修饰原级,不可以互换
very/much…be   much attracted by…√

⑷形容词原级与比较级的混用:
adj原级…than X → adj.比较级
less+原级…+than
as+原级+as 同级比较

⑸the most often X → most / very often
 more conect X
 more perfect X
绝对/极限形容词或者副词,没有比较级、最高级,如:round vertail othen
 perfect unique empty wrong absolutely等
例外:the most perfect √ 表示极其完美之意,由口语引入到书面语

⑹倍数表达法:
a 倍数+as+a.原级+as
Tom is three times as old as Jerry. (Tom的年龄是Jerry的三倍)
The care is threee times as deep as the building is high.
b 倍数+more than
Tom is twice older than Jerry..
c 倍数+n.+of (名词为比较的方面)
Tom is three times the age of Jerry.
d 倍数+that / those of
His weight is three times that of mine.  That of=as much as

⑺定冠词the与比较级的关系:
Alarska has the lower temperture than Texas. X →Alarska has lower
temperture than Texas.
*比较级前可以加the,.但得有对照,比如:the newer…the older…
eg: The taller boy is much more attractive than the shorten one.
*the +adj-er+of+the two +pl.
eg: Tom is the taller of the two boys.
  Joans is the fatter of the two girlsfriends of Bill’s.

⑻the与最高级的关系:
a Flies live longest in cold weather
副词最高级前通常没有the
b 当形容词最高级做前置定语修饰名词时,加the
the largest school 
c 当形容词最高级做后置定语时,不加the 
a design most similar to that one
d 形容词最高级做表语时,the可加可不加
This is where the river is deepest.
The consumers considers the best fmit (to be) that which is the most
acteacture. that=that fruit,代词

e 所有格可以代替the修饰最高级(讲义 P4 81)

f earliest的三种用法:
1)“早期”,n.
… from the earliest of Tang Dynasty.
2)形容词原级,“很早,非常早”
from earliest times/ages 从远古年代
(可以不加the)
3)形容词最高级
the earliest language(s) is/are…

⑼…or more结构
thirty-five years of age be older X → thirty-five years of age or
older
一英尺以上:an inch or more   √
an inch or more than X
an inch or be in more X

七、平行结构(讲义P4 87-89)
由平衡连接词连接的两个以上的对等对象构成
㈠平衡连接词:
1. 单一式:and but or
2. 短语式:as well as other than rather than instead of would
rather…than instead of
3. 相关式:from…to between…and not…but from…until either…or
(引导从句) weather…or(引导从句) such as as…as the same as 
not only…but also neither…nor

㈡平行式:
1.A and B not A but B A as well as B… 
2.A, B ,and /or C(常考) A,B,as well as C
3.A, B and C(不常考)

㈢平行的性质:一致性问题
1.词性平行(讲义P4 84)
city and regional planning
*在平行结构中,词性必须一致,但是无同义形容词的名词例外,如city没有同
义词(urban不表示“城市的”意思“)
eg:local, state, and national government

2.时态平行:时间决定时态,在平行结构中,时态可以不一致也可以不一致,
如果时间相同,则时态同;时间不同,时态也可以不同。

3.单复数平行:在平行结构中,单复数可以一致也可以不一致,一致与否取决
于客观事实及上下文

4. 结构形式的平行:a.+n doing to do v+obj done

5. 语意的平行:
Dallas,Texas,has become a international hub of
bank,fashion.manufaturing and transportation. X
→bank改为banking (讲义 P20 89.8.35)

6.排列位置的平行:
主语 not only 谓语 but also 谓语
not only+主谓(倒装)+but also 谓语 X → Not only 主谓(倒装)+but
also +主谓 √

八、词性的混用(25条改错中占6-8条)(讲义 90-96)
1. 做表语:n / adj / ad的混用:
表语:限定词+n. / 形容词 / 分词 / 介词+n,可做表语
⑴be+ad. X → be + adj. √
ad,永远不做表语。

⑵be+n.(抽象)→ be+adj.
抽象名词永远不做表语
eg: The books are no use. X 抽象名词不做表语
have no use.√
are not useful.√
are of no use.√ prep+of+抽象名词=形容词

⑶be+n+prep→ be+adj+prep
be fame for X → be famous for √

⑷are typical concerned with X → are concerned with 
be +表语,表语唯一原则,只能用一个表语,出现两个表语,要把一个改为副
词:
be completed closed X → be completely closed

2.做定语,名词与动名词的混用
原则:同义名词比动名词优先
eg: food supplying X  time and laboring X
名词与动名词的区别:(讲义 P5 96)
名词做宾语,其后不可以接宾语。动名词做宾语,其后可以带宾语。
*动名词前可加the,但加the后变成纯粹的名词,因此其后不可以加宾语,常接
of
eg: the learning of English
  the making of any work of art

3.状语引导词与近义介词或者副词的混用:
1)when / which(连词+时间状语)与during / in(介词+宾语)的混用。
*when/which+n.(孤立)X
例外:When/Which (he was) a young man, Humin had several books
published.

御风行天下 : 2005-04-28#2